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C Manual String <- [Unlimited Free PDF]
Use the static IsNullOrEmpty(String) method to verify the value of a string before you try to access it. That new object is assigned to the variable s1, and the original object that was assigned to s1 is released for garbage collection because no other variable holds a reference to it. This actually creates a new. System.Console.WriteLine(s1);My pensive SARA ! thy soft cheek reclinedString interpolation achieves the same results as the String.Format method, but improves ease of use and inline clarity. This example results in similar output to the string interpolation method used above. System.Console.WriteLine(s3.Substring(7, 2));The followingSystem.Console.WriteLine(sb.ToString()). System.Console.ReadLine();For more information, see LINQ and Strings. He drank some juice made of. He drank some juice made of apples.He drank some orange juice. He drank some purple juice. John Smith drank some apple juice. John Smith then said hello to Jane Smith. John Smith's wife greeted Robert Paulsen. Robert Paulsen greeted the two.I am bar.For my test, I used:But I had to do 1 billion iterations to find a 1.55 measurable difference. So the only real reason I'd consider using single-quoted strings for my literals is for code cleanliness, to make it super clear that the string is literal.However, you cannot do this for all values in your namespace. Constants and static properties require you to break up the string. Some regard this as one of the less obvious error messages.If the string starts with valid numeric data, this will be the value used. However, PHP uses the locale while converting numbers to strings. With strtod, the current locale is also used to choose the space characters, I don't know about PHP. The outer ones are not escaped and pass through directly. Not only is the mandatory final newline before the terminating symbol stripped, but an immediately preceding newline or space character is also stripped.
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Note there is a performance penalty for this method, as PHP must still parse and variable substitute the string. It also offers good support for object-oriented programming,Lua is intended to be used as a powerful, light-weightLua is implemented as a library, written in clean CThis host program can invoke functions to execute a piece of Lua code,Through the use of C functions, Lua can be augmented to cope withThe Lua distribution includes a sample host program called lua,The implementation described in this manual is availableFor a discussion of the decisions behind the design of Lua,For a detailed introduction to programming in Lua,In other words,Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal,This coincides with the definition of names in most languages.Identifiers are used to name variables and table fields.As a convention, names starting with an underscore followed byMoreover, a backslash followed by a real newlineA character in a string can also be specified by its numerical valueStrings in Lua can contain any 8-bit value, including embedded zeros,We define an opening long bracket of level n as an openingA closing long bracket is defined similarly. A long string starts with an opening long bracket of any level andLiterals in this bracketed form can run for several lines,They can contain anything except a closing bracket of the proper level.As an example, in a system using ASCIILua also accepts integer hexadecimal constants,Examples of valid numerical constants areIf the text immediately after -- is not an opening long bracket,Otherwise, it is a long comment,Long comments are frequently used to disable code temporarily.This means thatThere are no type definitions in the language. All values carry their own type.
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This means that all values can be stored in variables,Both nil and false make a condition false;Lua is 8-bit clean:This type corresponds to a block of raw memoryHowever, by using metatables,Userdata values cannot be created or modified in Lua,This guarantees the integrity of data owned by the host program.Do not confuse Lua threads with operating-system threads. Lua supports coroutines on all systems,Tables can be heterogeneous;Tables are the sole data structuring mechanism in Lua;To represent records, Lua uses the field name as an index. The language supports this representation by. There are several convenient ways to create tables in LuaIn particular,Assignment, parameter passing, and function returnsAny arithmetic operation applied to a string tries to convertConversely, whenever a number is used where a string is expected,For complete control over how numbers are converted to strings,There are three kinds of variables in Lua:Local variables are lexically scoped:This function is not defined or callable in Lua. We use it here only for explanatory purposes.)Each function has its own reference to an environment,When a function is created,To get the environment table of a Lua function,To replace it,We use them here only for explanatory purposes.)This set includesA chunk is simply a sequence of statements,Each statement can be optionally followed by a semicolon:As such, chunks can define local variables,To execute a chunk. Lua first pre-compiles the chunk into instructions for a virtual machine,Programs in source and compiled forms are interchangeable. Lua automatically detects the file type and acts accordingly.
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A block is a list of statements;Explicit blocks are also sometimes used toTherefore, the syntax for assignmentThe elements in both lists are separated by commas:If there are more values than needed,If there are fewer values than needed,If the list of expressions ends with a function call,Thus the codeSimilarly, the lineThis function is not defined or callable in Lua. We use it here only for explanatory purposes.)The control structuresBoth false and nil are considered false. All values different from nil and false are considered trueSo, the condition can refer to local variablesFunctions and chunks can return more than one value,If it is really necessary to return or break in theIt has the following syntax:More precisely, a for statement likeThey must all result in numbers.The names shown here are for explanatory purposes only.If you need this value,On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value,The generic for loop has the following syntax:Its results are an iterator function,The names are here for explanatory purposes only.If you need these values,Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block. The declaration can include an initial assignment:Otherwise, all variables are initialized with nil.The scope of such local variables extends until the end of the chunk.If an expression is used as a statementIf an expression is used as the last (or the only) elementIn all other contexts. Lua adjusts the result list to one element,Thus,Lua supports the usual arithmetic operators:If the operands are numbers, or strings that can be converted toExponentiation works for any exponent. Modulo is defined asThe relational operators in Lua areOtherwise, the values of the operands are compared. Numbers and strings are compared in the usual way. Objects (tables, userdata, threads, and functions)Every time you create a new objectIf both arguments are numbers, then they are compared as such.
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Otherwise, if both arguments are strings,The logical operators in Lua areThe conjunction operator and returns its first argumentThe disjunction operator or returns its first argumentBoth and and or use short-cut evaluation;Here are some examples:The string concatenation operator in Lua isIf both operands are strings or numbers, then they are converted toFor a regular array, with non-nil values from 1 to a given n,Operator precedence in Lua follows the table below,All other binary operators are left associative. Table constructors are expressions that create tables. Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created. A constructor can be used to create an empty tableThe general syntax for constructors isFinally, fields of the form exp are equivalent toFields in the other formats do not affect this counting. For example,To avoid this,A function call in Lua has the following syntax:If the value of prefixexp has type function,A call of the form f' string ' This restriction avoids some ambiguities in the language.
If you writeIf you actually want to call f,Lua implements proper tail calls Therefore, there is no limit on the number of nested tail calls thatHowever, a tail call erases any debug information about theNote that a tail call only happens with a particular syntax,So, none of the following examples are tail calls:When Lua pre-compiles a chunk,Then, whenever Lua executes the function definition,This function instance (or closure )Different instances of the same functionA vararg function does not adjust its argument list;The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments,If a vararg expression is used inside another expressionIf the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions,Thus, the statementThe scope of variables begins at the first statement after Consider the following example:A local variable used by an inner function is calledConsider the following example:Each of these closures uses a different y variable,Whenever an error occurs during Lua compilation or execution,If you need to catch errors in Lua,This metatable is an ordinary Lua tableYou can change several aspects of the behaviorFor instance, when a non-numeric value is the operand of an addition. If it finds one. Lua calls this function to perform the addition.You cannot change the metatable of other types from LuaValues of all other types share one single metatable per type;A metatable also can define a function to be called when a userdataFor each of these operations Lua associates a specific keyWhen Lua performs one of these operations over a value,If so, the value associated with that key (the metamethod)Each operation is identified by its corresponding name. The key for each operation is a string with its name prefixed by. The semantics of these operations is better explained by a Lua functionAll functions used in these descriptionsIn particular, to retrieve the metamethod of a given object,First, Lua tries the first operand.
If its type does not define a handler for the operation,A metamethod only is selected when both objectsLike metatables, environments are regular tables andUserdata and C functions are created sharing the environmentNon-nested Lua functionsNested Lua functions are created sharing the environment ofIt is only a convenience feature for programmers to associate a table toThey are used as the default environment for threads andIt is used as the default environment for other C functionsThey are used as the default environment for nested Lua functionsYou can get the environment of a Lua function or the running threadTo manipulate the environment of other objectsThis means thatLua manages memory automatically by runningAll memory used by Lua is subject to automatic management:It uses two numbers to control its garbage-collection cycles:Both use percentage points as unitsLarger values make the collector less aggressive. Values smaller than 100 mean the collector will not wait toA value of 200 means that the collector waits for the total memory in useLarger values make the collector more aggressive but also increaseValues smaller than 100 make the collector too slow andWith these functions you can also control These metamethods are also called finalizers. Finalizers allow you to coordinate Lua's garbage collectionInstead, Lua puts them in a list. After the collection. Lua does the equivalent of the following functionThat is, the first finalizer to be called is the one associatedThe userdata itself is freed only in the next garbage-collection cycle.A weak reference is ignored by the garbage collector. In other words,A table with weak keys allows the collection of its keys,A table with both weak keys and weak values allows the collection ofIn any case, if either the key or the value is collected,The weakness of a table is controlled by theOtherwise, the weak behavior of the tables controlled by thisA coroutine in Lua represents an independent thread of execution.
Unlike threads in multithread systems, however,Its sole argument is a functionThe create function only creates a new coroutine andExtra arguments passed to coroutine.resume are passed onAfter the coroutine starts running,In the first case, coroutine.resume returns true,In case of errors, coroutine.resume returns false When a coroutine yields,In the case of a yield, coroutine.resume also returns true,The next time you resume the same coroutine,Any arguments passed to this functionUnlike coroutine.resume,All API functions and related types and constantsAll such macros use each of their arguments exactly onceHowever, you can change this behavior by compiling LuaEach element in this stack represents a Lua valueC functions that are still active. This stack initially contains any arguments to the C functionInstead, they can refer to any element in the stackA positive index represents an absolute stack positionMore specifically, if the stack has n elements,We say that an index is valid In particular,Such indices are called acceptable indices. More formally, we define an acceptable index Pseudo-indices are used to access the thread environment,The environment of the running C function is alwaysFor instance, to access the value of a global variable, doThese pseudo-indices are produced by the macro. The first value associated with a function is at positionThis table is always located at pseudo-index.
Any C library can store data into this table,Typically, you should use as key a string containing your library nameWhen Lua faces any errorA protected environment uses setjmp The documentation for each function indicates whetherEach function has an indicator like this:The second field, p,The third field, x,The allocator function must provide aIts arguments areWhen nsize is zero, the allocator must return NULL;When nsize is not zero, the allocator returns NULL When nsize is not zero and osize is zero,When nsize and osize are not zero,Lua assumes that the allocator never fails whenANSI C ensures both behaviors.Lua calls a panic function Your panic function can avoid this exit byAll arguments and the function value are popped from the stackThe function results are pushed onto the stack when the function returns. The number of results is adjusted to nresults. In this case, all results from the function are pushed. Lua takes care that the returned values fit into the stack space. The function results are pushed onto the stack in direct orderThis is considered good programming practice.So, when the function starts. The first argument (if any) is at index 1. To return values to Lua, a C function just pushes them onto the stack,Any other value in the stack below the results will be properlyLike a Lua function, a C function called by Lua can also returnIt returns false if it cannot grow the stack to that size. This function never shrinks the stack;On several platforms, you may not need to call this function,On the other hand, long-running programs,If n is 1, the result is the single value on the stackConcatenation is performed following the usual semantics of LuaIn case of errors,All values returned by func are discarded.The new table has space pre-allocatedThis pre-allocation is useful when you know exactly how many elementsReceives a Lua function on the top of the stackAs it produces parts of the chunk,Otherwise returns 0. Also returns 0 if any of the indices is non valid.
The error message (which can actually be a Lua value of any type)This function does a long jump,If you want to control the step sizeThe function returns 1 if the step finished aThe function returns the previous value of the pause.The function returns the previous value of the step multiplier.As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethodIt is defined as a macro:If the index is not valid,As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethodBecause indices start at 1,Cannot be called with a pseudo-index,Otherwise returns 0. Also returns 0 if any of the indices is non valid.If there are no errors,Otherwise, it pushes an error message.Returns NULL if cannot create the stateThe argument f is the allocator function. Lua does all memory allocation for this state through this function. The second argument, ud, is an opaque pointer that LuaThe new state returned by this function shares with the original stateThreads are subject to garbage collection,A full userdata represents a block of memory. It is an object (like a table):A full userdata is only equal to itself (under raw equality).Lua calls the metamethod and marks the userdata as finalized. When this userdata is collected again then. Lua frees its corresponding memory.If there are no more elements in the table,By default, it is double, but that can be changed in luaconf.h.Lua to operate with another type for numbers (e.g., float or long).If there are no errors during the call. However, if there is any error,Otherwise, errfunc is the stack index of anIn case of runtime errors,For such errors, Lua does not call the error handler function.To associate values with a C function,This function receives a pointer to a C functionIt is similar to the C function sprintf,There are no flags, widths, or precisions. The conversion specifiers can only beA light userdata represents a pointer. It is a value (like a number):In these cases, it automatically provides the string length.
Lua makes (or reuses) an internal copy of the given string,The string can contain embedded zeros.Lua makes (or reuses) an internal copy of the given string,The string cannot contain embedded zeros;Returns 1 if this thread is the main thread of its state.Otherwise returns 0. Also returns 0 if any of the indices are non valid.The access is raw;The assignment is raw;The reader must return a pointer to a block of memoryThe block must exist until the reader function is called again. To signal the end of the chunk,The reader function may return pieces of any size greater than zero.It is defined as a macro:Cannot be called with a pseudo-index,This call returns when the coroutine suspends or finishes its execution.In case of errors,The error message is on the top of the stack. To restart a coroutine, you put on its stack only the values toIf the value at the given index isOtherwise it returns 1.As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethodIt is defined as a macro:As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethodIf the new top is larger than the old one,If index is 0, then all stack elements are removed.The Lua library is fully reentrant:All information about a state is kept in this structure.Like all tests in Lua,It also returns 0 when called with a non-valid index.That value must be a C function;The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a numberIf len is not NULL. The Lua value must be a string or a number;If the value is a number,This string always has a zero (' \0 ')Because Lua has garbage collection,The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a numberThe value can be a userdata, a table, a thread, or a function. Different objects will give different pointers. There is no way to convert the pointer back to its original value.This value must be a thread;If the value is a light userdata,Otherwise, returns NULL.
The parameter nresults is the number of values from the stackInstead, it offers a special interfaceThis interface allows the construction of differentIf the function was defined in a string,If the function was defined in a file,In the latter case. Lua has no other information about the function.When no line information is available,Because functions in Lua are first-class values,If it cannot find a name,The value of namewhat can beFor instance, to know in which line a function f was defined,Non-valid lines include empty lines and comments.)The parameter ar must be a valid activation record that was. The index n selects which local variable to inspectLevel 0 is the current running function,So, they are numbered in an arbitrary order.)Lua identifies these events with the following constants. Moreover, for line events, the field currentline is also set. To get the value of any other field in ar. In the latter case, Lua is simulating a return fromTherefore, if a hook calls back Lua to execute a function or a chunk,The count argument is only meaningful when the mask. For each event, the hook is called as explained below:The hook is called just after Lua enters the new function,The hook is called just before Lua leaves the function. You have no access to the values to be returned by the function.It also pops the value from the stack.It assigns the value at the top of the stackIt also pops the value from the stack.While the basic API provides the primitive functions for all All of these functions throw an error if the check is not satisfied. Because the error message is formatted for argumentsThe string may contain embedded zeros.The string may not contain embedded zeros.Pops the value.
If not, raises an error with the following message,Its pattern of use is as follows:So, while using a buffer, you cannot assume that you know whereYou can use the stack between successive calls to buffer operationsThis function does not allocate any space;In this case this function returns 1 and pushes onto theIf there is no metatable or no metamethod,Returns the index in the array where the string was found. Raises an error if the argument is not a string orIt is defined as the following macro:It is defined as the following macro:The error message format is given by fmt It also adds at the beginning of the message the file name andIf the object does not have a metatable,Pushes the resulting string on the stack and returns it.If filename is NULL,Otherwise,If this argument is absent or is nil,Otherwise, raises an error.If this argument is absent or is nil,Otherwise, raises an error.If this argument is absent or is nil,Otherwise, raises an error.If this argument is absent or is nil,Otherwise, raises an error.If this argument is absent or is nil,Otherwise, raises an error.If this argument is absent or is nil,Otherwise, raises an error.After copying the string into this space you must callAs long as you do not manually add integer keys into table t. You can retrieve an object referred by reference r The entry is removed from the table,The reference ref is also freed to be used again.Typically this string has the following format:Some of these functions provide essential services to the languageCurrently, Lua has the following standard libraries:Alternatively,These functions are declared in lualib.h If you do not include this library in your application,It performs different functions according to its first argument, opt:This is the default option.If you want to control the step sizeReturns true if the step finished a collection cycle.Returns the previous value for pause.Returns the previous value for step.
When called without arguments,Returns all values returned by the chunk. In case of errors, dofile propagates the errorFunction error never returns.The level argument specifies how to get the error position. With level 1 (the default), the error position is where theLevel 2 points the error to where the functionPassing a level 0 avoids the addition of error position informationLua itself does not use this variable;Level 1 is the function calling getfenv. If the given function is not a Lua function,The default for f is 1.Otherwise,Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given object.Each call to func must return a string that concatenatesA return of an empty string, nil, or no value signals the end of the chunk.The environment of the returned function is the global environment.When absent,Its first argument is a table and its second argumentWhen called with nil as its second argument,When called with the last index,If the second argument is absent, then it is interpreted as nil. In particular,You may however modify existing fields. In particular, you may clear existing fields.This means that any error inside f is not propagated;Its first result is the status code (a boolean),In such case, pcall also returns all results from the call,In case of any error, pcall returns false plus the error message.For formatted output, use string.format.Checks whether v1 is equal to v2,Returns a boolean.Level 1 is the function calling setfenv.In this case, setfenv returns no values.If metatable is nil,If the argument is already a number or a string convertibleThe base may be any integer between 2 and 36, inclusive. In bases above 10, the letter ' A ' (in either upper or lower case)In base 10 (the default), the number can have a decimal part. In other bases, only unsigned integers are accepted.Receives an argument of any type andFor complete control of how numbers are converted,Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string.
The possible results of this function areThis function is equivalent toBy default, i is 1 and j is the length of the list,Any error inside f is not propagated;Its first result is the status code (a boolean),In this case, xpcall also returns all results from the call,In case of any error,Returns this new coroutine,The first time you resume a coroutine,If the coroutine has yielded,If there is any error,Returns a function that resumes the coroutine each time it is called. Any arguments passed to the function behave as theReturns the same values returned by resume,In case of error, propagates the error.The coroutine cannot be running a C function,Any arguments to yield are passed as extra results to resume.It exports two of its functions directly in the global environment:Everything else is exported in a table package.Otherwise, if there is a global table t with the given name,Otherwise creates a new table t andFinally, module sets t as the new environmentFor instance, if name is a.b.c,The function starts by looking into the package.loaded tableIf it is, then require returns the value stored. Otherwise, it tries to find a loader for the module.By changing this array,The following explanation is based on the default configurationOtherwise require searches for a Lua loader using theIf that also fails, it searches for a C loader using theIf that also fails,If the loader returns any value. If the loader returns no value andIn any case, require returns theWhen you require a module modname andWhen looking for a module,The function can return another function (the module loader )Lua initializes this table with four functions.A path is a sequence of templates separated by semicolons. For each template,So, for instance, if the Lua path is the stringFor instance,Once it finds a C library,Then it tries to find a C function inside the library toMoreover, if the module name has a hyphen,For instance, if the module name is a.v1-b.
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