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Bmw E34 Online Repair Manual - [EBooks]
The current custom error settings for this application prevent the details of the application error from being viewed remotely (for security reasons). It could, however, be viewed by browsers running on the local server machine. Like the bustling factory, the body must have a transportation system to carry its various cargos back and forth, and this is where the cardiovascular system steps in. Variations in the rate and force of heart contraction match blood flow to the changing metabolic needs of the tissues during rest, exercise, and changes in body position. Contractions of the heart produce blood pressure, which is needed for blood flow through the blood vessels. The valves of the heart secure a one-way blood flow through the heart and blood vessels. The loosely fitting superficial part of this sac is referred to as the fibrous pericardium, which helps protect the heart and anchors it to surrounding structures such as the diaphragm and sternum. The two inferior, thick-walled ventricles are the discharging chambers, or actual pumps of the heart wherein when they contract, blood is propelled out of the heart and into the circulation. The heart receives relatively oxygen-poor blood from the veins of the body through the large superior and inferior vena cava and pumps it through the pulmonary trunk. Atrioventricular or AV valves are located between the atrial and ventricular chambers on each side, and they prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles contract. The brachiocephalic trunk, the first branch off the aortic arch, splits into the right common carotid artery and right subclavian artery. The left common carotid artery is the second branch off the aortic arch and it divides, forming the left internal carotid, which serves the brain, and the l eft external carotid, which serves the skin and muscles of the head and neck.
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The third branch of the aortic arch, the left subclavian artery, gives off an important branch- the vertebral artery, which serves part of the brain. At the elbow, the brachial artery splits to form the radial and ulnar arteries, which serve the forearm. Ten pairs of intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the thorax wall. The unpaired superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the small intestine and the first half of the large intestine or colon. The inferior mesenteric artery is a small, unpaired artery supplying the second half of the large intestine. The common iliac arteries are the final branches of the abdominal aorta. The radial and ulnar veins are deep veins draining the forearm; they unite to form the deep brachial vein, which drains the arm and empties into the axillary vein in the axillary region. The basilic and cephalic veins are joined at the anterior aspect of the elbow by the median cubital vein, often chosen as the site for blood removal for the purpose of blood testing. The internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of the brain. The right and left brachiocephalic veins are large veins that receive venous drainage from the subclavian, vertebral, and internal jugular veins on their respective sides. The great saphenous veins are the longest veins in the body; they begin at the dorsal venous arch in the foot and travel up the medial aspect of the leg to empty into the femoral vein in the thigh. The hepatic portal vein is a single vein that drains the digestive tract organs and carries this blood through the liver before it enters the systemic circulation. Cardiac muscle cells can and do contract spontaneously and independently, even if all nervous connections are severed. The intrinsic conduction system, or the nodal system, that is built into the heart tissue sets the basic rhythm.
The SA node has the highest rate of depolarization in the whole system, so it can start the beat and set the pace for the whole heart; thus the term “ pacemaker “. It then passes through the AV bundle, the bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers, resulting in a “wringing” contraction of the ventricles that begins at the heart apex and moves toward the atria. The depolarization wave then spreads to the AV node, and then the atria contract. The wave then continues on through the right and left bundle branches, and then to the Purkinje fibers in the ventricular walls, resulting in a contraction that ejects blood, leaving the heart. The cycle starts with the heart in complete relaxation; the pressure in the heart is low, and blood is flowing passively into and through the atria into the ventricles from the pulmonary and systemic circulations; the semilunar valves are closed, and the AV valves are open; then the atria contract and force the blood remaining in their chambers into the ventricles. Shortly after, the ventricular contraction begins, and the pressure within the ventricles increases rapidly, closing the AV valves; when the intraventricular pressure is higher than the pressure in the large arteries leaving the heart, the semilunar valves are forced open, and blood rushes through them out of the ventricles; the atria are relaxed, and their chambers are again filling with blood. It is the product of the heart rate and the stroke volume. According to Starling’s law of the heart, the critical factor controlling stroke volume is how much the cardiac muscle cells are stretched just before they contract; the more they are stretched, the stronger the contraction will be; and anything that increases the volume or speed of venous return also increases stroke volume and force of contraction. The most important external influence on heart rate is the activity of the autonomic nervous system, as well as physical factors (age, gender, exercise, and body temperature).
The pressure is highest in the large arteries and continues to drop throughout the systemic and pulmonary pathways, reaching either zero or negative pressure at the venae cavae. Because the heart alternately contracts and relaxes, the off-and-on flow of the blood into the arteries causes the blood pressure to rise and fall during each beat, thus, two arterial blood pressure measurements are usually made: systolic pressure (the pressure in the arteries at the peak of ventricular contraction) and diastolic pressure (the pressure when the ventricles are relaxing). Peripheral resistance is the amount of friction the blood encounters as it flows through the blood vessels. Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium of the heart. When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts to prevent blood from flowing backward into the atria while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated. The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve. When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the body. As with all cells, substances can diffuse directly through their plasma membranes if the substances are lipid-soluble. Limited passage of fluid and small solutes is allowed by intercellular clefts (gaps or areas of plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions), so most of our capillaries have intercellular clefts.
Very free passage of small solutes and fluid is allowed by fenestrated capillaries, and these unique capillaries are found where absorption is a priority or where filtration occurs. Please visit our nursing test bank page for more NCLEX practice questions. They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass through a regulated gate between cells. A: Extensive capillary networks allows abundant supply of oxygen and nutrients on tissues such as skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney. B: Intercalated disks support synchronized contraction of cardiac tissue. They occur at the Z-line of the sarcomere and can be visualized easily when observing a longitudinal section of the tissue. C: Mitochondrion is an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve. When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the right atrium while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs, where it is oxygenated. The oxygenated blood then returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary veins empty oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve. When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta, and to the body. A: The aorta is the largest artery that carries blood from the left ventricle to the body. C: The larger, flat portion at the opposite is the base. D.
The pericardium is also called the pericardial sac. It has a fibrous outer layer and a thin inner layer that surrounds the heart. Sodium ions then diffuse into the cell, causing depolarization. Calcium ions then diffuse into the cell and cause depolarization. B: The SA node consists of a cluster of cells that are situated in the upper part of the wall of the right atrium (the right upper chamber of the heart). C: When action potentials reach the AV node, they spread slowly through it. D: Action potentials pass slowly through the atrioventricular node. The QRS complex results from depolarization of the ventricles, and the beginning of the QRS complex precedes ventricular contraction. A: The P wave results from depolarization of the atrial myocardium, and the beginning of the P wave precedes the onset of atrial contraction. C: The T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles, and the beginning of the T wave precedes ventricular relaxation. D: During the P-R interval, the atria contract and begin to relax. The statement is: Almost immediately the AV valves close (the first heart sound). The pressure in the ventricle continues to increase. Continued ventricular contraction causes the pressure in the ventricle to exceed in the pulmonary trunk and aorta. As a result, the semilunar are forced open and blood is ejected into the pulmonary trunk and aorta. It occurs at the beginning of ventricular diastole and results from closure of the semilunar valves. A: The first heart sound can be represented by the syllable lubb. It occurs at the beginning of ventricular systole and results from closure of the AV valves. B: As venous return increased, resulting in an increased preload, cardiac output increases. C: In response to increased preload, cardiac muscle fibers contract with greater force. D: In response to stretch, there is a slight increase in heart rate.
A: The P wave results from depolarization of the atrial myocardium, and the beginning of the P wave precedes the onset of atrial contraction. B: The time between the beginning of the P wave and the beginning of the QRS complex is the PQ interval, commonly called the PR interval because the Q wave is very small. During the PR interval, the atria contract and begin to relax. C: The QRS complex consists of three individual waves: the Q, R, and S waves. The QRS complex results from depolarization of the ventricles, and the beginning of the QRS complex precedes ventricular contraction. D: The QT interval extends from the beginning of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave and represents the length of time required for ventricular depolarization and repolarization. She is a registered nurse since 2015 and is currently working in a regional tertiary hospital and is finishing her Master's in Nursing this June. As an outpatient department nurse, she is a seasoned nurse in providing health teachings to her patients making her also an excellent study guide writer for student nurses. Marianne is also a mom of a toddler going through the terrible twos and her free time is spent on reading books! Since we started in 2010, Nurseslabs has become one of the most trusted nursing sites helping thousands of aspiring nurses achieve their goals. After that, the program will be broadcasted on various other television networks. However, studies have shown that when nurses have higher self-compassion scores, they are more resilient and less likely to experience compassion fatigue and burnout. Since we started in 2010, Nurseslabs has become one of the most trusted nursing sites helping thousands of aspiring nurses achieve their goals. Physical campuses are only open to students attending on-campus classes, those with an appointment, and MCC employees.
Topics include endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems; and fluid and electrolyte balance. Prerequisites: A grade of C or better in BIO201 or BIO201XT. Lab kits are required. These can be purchased in the bookstore. Students are required to have access to a computer or mobile device, and Internet access, unless otherwise specified. Before enrolling in their first online class at MCC, students need to view the online orientation and complete the readiness survey on for additional information. This course uses online proctored exams which require 1. a PC or Mac computer or iPad (no Chromebooks or tablets), 2. a microphone, 3. a camera, and 4. a reliable internet connection. Lecture content is provided as recorded videos supplemented by optional live office hours and study sessions. Use of MyLab and Mastering is also required. Lab content is available online, but you are required to purchase the lab kit available at the bookstore. You will not be required to purchase a lab manual.Students are required to have access to a computer or mobile device, and Internet access, unless otherwise specified. Before enrolling in their first online class at MCC, students need to view the online orientation and complete the readiness survey on for additional information.Students are required to have access to a computer or mobile device, and Internet access, unless otherwise specified. Before enrolling in their first online class at MCC, students need to view the online orientation and complete the readiness survey on for additional information.The other part will be held online either without a set time to attend or a Live Online session. Students enrolling in a hybrid class acknowledge they already possess the skills described in the Minimum Computer and Technology Requirements at for additional information.The other part will be held online either without a set time to attend or a Live Online session.
Students enrolling in a hybrid class acknowledge they already possess the skills described in the Minimum Computer and Technology Requirements at for additional information.MCC treats all student information as confidential. Download the MyInfo App on the Play Store. A lack of English language skills will not be a barrier to admission and participation in the career and technical education programs of the District. The Maricopa County Community College District does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, disability or age in its programs or activities. For additional information, as well as a listing of all coordinators within the Maricopa College system, visit. When vessel functioning is reduced, blood-borne substances do not circulate effectively throughout the body. As a result, tissue injury occurs, metabolism is impaired, and the functions of every bodily system are threatened. 20.1: Structure and Function of Blood Vessels Blood is carried through the body via blood vessels. An artery is a blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart, where it branches into ever-smaller vessels. Eventually, the smallest arteries, vessels called arterioles, further branch into tiny capillaries, where nutrients and wastes are exchanged, and then combine with other vessels that exit capillaries to form venules, small blood vessels that carry blood to a vein, a larger blood vessel that returns blood to the heart. 20.2: Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance Ventricular contraction ejects blood into the major arteries, resulting in flow from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, as blood encounters smaller arteries and arterioles, then capillaries, then the venules and veins of the venous system. This section discusses a number of critical variables that contribute to blood flow throughout the body. It also discusses the factors that impede or slow blood flow, a phenomenon known as resistance. 20.
3: Capillary Exchange Glucose, amino acids, and ions—including sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride—use transporters to move through specific channels in the membrane by facilitated diffusion. Glucose, ions, and larger molecules may also leave the blood through intercellular clefts. Larger molecules can pass through the pores of fenestrated capillaries, and even large plasma proteins can pass through the great gaps in the sinusoids. 20.4: Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System To maintain homeostasis in the cardiovascular system and provide adequate blood to the tissues, blood flow must be redirected continually to the tissues as they become more active. In a very real sense, the cardiovascular system engages in resource allocation, because there is not enough blood flow to distribute blood equally to all tissues simultaneously. For example, when an individual is exercising, more blood will be directed to skeletal muscles, the heart, and the lungs. 20.5: Circulatory Pathways Virtually every cell, tissue, organ, and system in the body is impacted by the circulatory system. This includes the generalized and more specialized functions of transport of materials, capillary exchange, maintaining health by transporting white blood cells and various immunoglobulins (antibodies), hemostasis, regulation of body temperature, and helping to maintain acid-base balance. In addition to these shared functions, many systems enjoy a unique relationship with the circulatory system. 20.6: Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation In a developing embryo,the heart has developed enough by day 21 post-fertilization to begin beating. Circulation patterns are clearly established by the fourth week of embryonic life. It is critical to the survival of the developing human that the circulatory system forms early to supply the growing tissue with nutrients and gases, and to remove waste products.
Development of these circulatory elements within the embryo itself begins approximately 2 days later. Unless otherwise noted, LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Legal. Have questions or comments. All rights reserved. We use cookies to help improve user experience. This includes a range of things such as user personalisation, page analytics and more. Click here to learn more Close Accept. This happens by circulating blood through a complex network of arteries, veins and capillaries. The blood delivers oxygen, hormones, amino acids, electrolytes, and other proteins to the body’s cells, and then removes waste products to maintain a constant state of homeostasis. Efficient function of the CVS is a requirement of healthy cellular activity and life, as paramedics we will often see patients that have diseases of the CVS that may require significant intervention. As such it is important to have a solid understanding of the system as a whole. We will begin by taking a look at the three essential components of the cardiovascular system, which is the heart, blood and blood vessels. Heart The heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic or chest cavity that is responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels. It is a complex organ in both structure and function which we will discover in more depth in other articles which can be accessed by clicking here or using the search function. The de-oxygenated blood and waste products such as carbon dioxide are then returned to the heart via the veins, also know as the venous system. Blood Blood is the fluid which is vital to life and is found inside the vessels of the cardiovascular system. Blood is the delivery device that transports oxygen and nutrients to cells, it also removes the waste products from metabolic activities. Blood is made up of three main components.
By volume, Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) constitutes approximately 45 of whole blood, plasma makes up 54 and White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) less then 1. Erythrocytes are responsible for the transportation of oxygen as they contain haemoglobin. Leukocytes fight of infections by targeting and destroying foreign bodies through apoptosis. The plasma is mostly made up of water, although it also contains other proteins necessary for healthy cell function. Together, blood sustains life by providing the essential nutrients to specific cells when they require them. Blood Vessels Blood vessels are the “pipes” that allow for transportation of the blood. They are made of multiple layers of connective tissue and are generally classified into three broad categories: Arteries, Veins and Capillaries. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to be utilised within body, veins transport de-oxygenated blood and waste products back to the heart. The capillaries are very small vessels that exchange oxygen and other nutrients at the cellular level then return the products to the venous circulation. As we progress through the cardiac course of Paramedic StudyGuide, we will gain a greater understanding of the anatomy, physiology and pathophys of the CVS and how we as paramedics can help our patients when cardiac issues arise. Main Body 1. Identifying Word Parts in Medical Terms 2. Medical Language Rules 3. Prefix 4. Suffix 5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology 6. Integumentary System 7. Respiratory System 8. Urinary System 9. Male Reproductive System 10. Female Reproductive System 11. Obstetrics 12. Cardiovascular System - Heart 13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood 14. Lymphatic and Immune Systems 15. Digestive System 16. Skeletal System 17. Muscular System 18. Sensory Systems 19. Nervous System 20. Endocrine System The heart, as discussed in the previous chapter, pumps blood throughout the body in a network of blood vessels.
Together, these three components—blood, heart, and vessels—makes up the cardiovascular system. This includes the generalized and more specialized functions of transport of materials, capillary exchange, maintaining health by transporting white blood cells and various immunoglobulins (antibodies), hemostasis, regulation of body temperature, and helping to maintain acid-base balance. Table 13.1 summarizes the important relationships between the circulatory system and the other body systems. Adapted from Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY 4.0. The contraction of skeletal muscles surrounding a vein compresses the blood and increases the pressure in that area. This action forces blood closer to the heart where venous pressure is lower. Note the importance of the one-way valves to assure that blood flows only in the proper direction.From the most interior layer to the outer, these tunics are the tunica intima, the tunica media, and the tunica externa (see Figure 13.3). The smooth muscle in the middle layer, the tunica media, provides the vessel with the ability to vasoconstrict and vasodilate as needed to ensure sufficient blood flow. From Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY 4.0. For example, you will find a pair of femoral arteries and a pair of femoral veins, with one vessel on each side of the body. In contrast, some vessels closer to the midline of the body, such as the aorta, are unique and not paired. Names of vessels may change with location. Like a street that changes name as it passes through an intersection, an artery or vein can change names as it passes an anatomical landmark. For example, the left subclavian artery becomes the axillary artery as it passes into the axillary region, and then becomes the brachial artery as it enters the upper arm. The next two diagrams illustrate the major arteries and veins in the human body. The major systemic veins of the body are shown here in an anterior view.
Systemic arteries provide blood rich in oxygen to the body’s tissues. The blood returned to the heart through systemic veins has less oxygen, since much of the oxygen carried by the arteries has been delivered to the cells. In contrast, in the pulmonary circuit, arteries carry blood low in oxygen exclusively to the lungs for gas exchange. Pulmonary veins then return freshly oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart to be pumped back out into systemic circulation. The pulmonary circuit moves blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. The systemic circuit moves blood from the left side of the heart to the head and body and returns it to the right side of the heart to repeat the cycle. The arrows indicate the direction of blood flow, and the colors show the relative levels of oxygen concentration.Blood pressure is one of the critical parameters measured on virtually every patient in every healthcare setting. B lood pressure is measured in mm Hg and is usually obtained from the brachial artery using a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. Blood pressure is recorded as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure. This expansion and recoiling of the arterial wall is called the pulse and allows us to measure heart rate. Pulse can be palpated manually by placing the tips of the fingers across an artery that runs close to the body surface, such as the radial artery or the common carotid artery. These sites and other pulse sites are shown in the figure below. A high or irregular pulse rate can be caused by physical activity or other temporary factors, but it may also indicate a heart condition. The pulse strength indicates the strength of ventricular contraction and cardiac output. If the pulse is strong, then systolic pressure is high. If it is weak, systolic pressure has fallen, and medical intervention may be warranted.
The cellular elements are referred to as the formed elements and include red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. The extracellular matrix, called plasma, makes blood unique among connective tissues because it is fluid. This fluid, which is mostly water, perpetually suspends the formed elements and enables them to circulate throughout the body within the cardiovascular system. Erythrocytes are the heaviest elements in blood and settle at the very bottom of the tube. Above the erythrocyte layer we see the buffy coat, a pale, thin layer of leukocytes and thrombocytes, which together make up less than 1 of the sample of whole blood. Above the buffy coat is the blood plasma, normally a pale, straw-colored fluid, which constitutes the remainder of the sample. Not counting the buffy coat, which makes up less than 1 of the blood, we can estimate the mean plasma percentage to be the percent of blood that is not erythrocytes: approximately 55. The cellular elements of blood include a vast number of erythrocytes and comparatively fewer leukocytes and platelets. Plasma is the fluid in which the formed elements are suspended. A sample of blood spun in a centrifuge reveals that plasma is the lightest component. It floats at the top of the tube separated from the heaviest elements, the erythrocytes, by a buffy coat of leukocytes and platelets. Hematocrit is the percentage of the total sample that is comprised of erythrocytes. Depressed and elevated hematocrit levels are shown for comparison.This table displays the components of blood and their associated functions. Adapted from Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY 4.0. In fact, it is about 92 water. Dissolved or suspended within this water is a mixture of substances, most of which are proteins. The major components of plasma and their functions are summarized in the table above. Adapted from Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY 4.0.
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